Sumbangan Islam Terhadap ilmu Pengetahuan

Bismillah


wahyu yang pertama kali turun kepada Rosulullah Saw adalah perintah untuk membaca ( Iqro'), dalam perjalanannya ilmuan Muslim selalu mengedepankan penelitian atau membaca kejadian yang terjadi dan berusaha untuk memecahkan suatu masalah dengan cara meneliti dan jauh dari tahayul hal ini banyak diakui oleh ilmuan barat. dan dalam al-qu'an sendiri Allah mengajak kaum muslimin untuk berfikir

the miracle of fasting

sebagi seorang muslim tentulah puasa bukan menjadi hal yang asing untuk diingat dalam kosakata memory kita. dan bahkan mulai dari anak kcil hingga yang edwasa sudah pernah menjalakannya, tentu dengan berbagai alasan agar gugur kewajiban atau karena gerakan hati yang paling dalam untuk menjalankan perintah Tuhan. ternyat puasa selain mendapat pahala bagi yang menjalankannya dengan ikhlash juga bisa digunakan sebagai teraphy penyakit psikologi karena melatih jiwa untuk mengendalikan diri dalam berbagai hal yang sebenarnya mubah sepert; makan, minum, kebutuhan biologi lainnya serta tidak boleh marah dan harus banyak memaafkan.
(( wahai orang 2 yang beriman telah diwajibkan bagi kamu sekalian berpuasa, sebagaiman telah diwajibkan pula bagi orang 2 ( yang beriman ) sebelumkamu, agar kamu menjadi orang 2 yang bertaqwa )). <> orang yang mudah depresi dan memiliki tekanan darah tinggi disebabkan kurangnya kemampuan untuk mengendalikan diri dalam berbagai hal misal ; makan berlebihan yang tidak dibarengi dengan olahraga yang cukup yang bisa memmbuat penimbunan lemak serta pengerasan pembuluh darah sehingga kerja jantung dan 'organ organ ubuh lainnya akan semakin berat, organ dalam manusia didalam tubuh mereka adalah mesin yang sangat kuat bekerja, akan lebih bijak lagi apabila manusia tersebut menggunakan mesinnya dengan sewajarnya agar usia mesin akan bertahan lama dan tidak cepat rusak. Rosulullah pernah bersabda (( lambung itu adalah sarangnya penyakit )) karena disitulah tempat berkumpulnya sisa2 metabolisme tubuh yang notabene banyak mengandung bakteri kuman dan berbagai parasit mikroba, semakin banyak kita makan dengan berlebihan maka semakin banya pula timbunan lemak dan sisa2 metabolisme dalam tubuh yang juga akan membertkan kerja lambung dalam mencerna rosulullah bersabda : (( berpuasalah maka kalian akan menjadi sehat)), ada pepatah yang mengatakan " manusia menggali kuburnya dengan gigi mereka sendiri" maksudnya mereka menjadikan organ dalam mereka rusak karena makan makanan tanpa peduli kemampuan organ dalam tubuh sehingga menjadi rusak atau bahkan binasa Allah Swt berfierman (( makan dan minumlah dengan tanpa berlebih2an )). puasa juga bisa menjadi terapi untuk penyakit kulit ...................<>

I love chemical

Introduction

Samawi religion as the last one is the religion of Islam is universal and does not separate between the world and the Hereafter, because - whether the vehicle of the world hereafter. in many verses of qur'an Allah has offensive on issues of science and people who think about God's creation, namely the ulul albab, ulul abshaar, dzawil 'uquul etc. with al-Qur'an a Muslim start to think about the revelations of Allah which are kauniyah or qur'aniyah and some of them are about science, namely genotologi knowledge about the structure of the genes or the human body that are inherited from mother nature and process of the creation of man from the land or the quintessence seperma (because he comes from a variety of substances in the soil which is then processed by the body) and so on during the fetus in the womb Feed get food from the mother because the fetus is called the 'alaqoh ( attached and take food from the mother body so become the humanbeing and more knowledge can we learn from al-qu'an following discussion is about chemistry
The Art of Alchemy (Ilm al-ʿ San ʿ a) we will discuss here the theory and practical knowledge and is intended to change from metal such as iron, copper and silver into gold with the use of chemicals with the aid of chemicals from the elixir. On the other hand, discusses the practical industrial production of chemical industry products using the chemicals and the process will be the subject of a separate article. Our discussion here does not deal with the mystical aspects of Alchemy.

Origin of the word Alchemy
Words in Arabic word al-kimiya 'الكيمياء article consists of al (a) and kimiya' (chemical). This diBaratkan with the translation movement that occurred in the twelfth century. Arabic in the form of al-kimiya 'is the origin of the word Alchemy which is used to show knowledge of Alchemy didahului modern chemistry. Kimiya 'without the article "al" is the chemical origin of the word. In Arabic word al-kimiya 'means both Alkimia and Chemistry, Some contemporary Arab writers tried to distinguish between Alchemy and Chemistry with the word al-khimiya' الخيمياء to show Alchemy.

Word khemeia occur for the first time in a decree issued by the Roman Emperor Diocletian (c. 245-c. 312), to burn all the books from Egypt khemeia the deal with Alchemy and production of gold and silver.

This is the word most likely comes from the name of Egypt. Plutarch (c. 46 - 127) mentioned in the treatise written around 100 CE Egypt Khemia called because the color black to the ground. Some think that the word is from Greek origin, and others think that it is China. [1]

Although this branch of science called al-kimiya 'in Arabic, but it is also called Science of Art' Ilm al-san'a علم الصنعة Arts practitioners and this is called al-san'a master, and the alchemists called hukama 'or philosophers.

Alchemy and Chemistry in Ancient Civilizations
Chemical knowledge begins with the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt since the fourth millennium BC the metal such as gold, silver, copper and iron that is used from an early date for various purposes. The ores mining techniques, the metal is, and form their alloying have mastered quite early. Department of glassmaking, enamel, die, tanning, oil and fat extraction, detergent and perfume is also developed.

Some types of materials used in the chemical industry that is known. Among the alums, the various types of salt and nitrates [2].

This indicates that the increase of chemicals known since ancient civilizations. However, he and an empirical knowledge of Alchemy and Chemistry who have not yet evolved into a science.

After a bloody science in general started in Mesopotamia and Egypt, and from there they moved to Greece. It is therefore useful to investigate the chemistry When in both ancient civilizations since May this reveal to us some original concept in theory, both Alchemy and chemicals.

Babylonians believed that the universe came from water. They also found that the universe contains contradictory elements. Thus, there is day and night, light and darkness, male and female, hot and cold, wet and dry. There are also good and evil, and in general, have a feature for each of the opposite. It is also possible to divide it into two with the opposite element, and all opponents of the two elements can be produced.

The Babylonians who are interested observers of the stars, and their history from the beginning they believed that the god in control of the stars. They also believe that the sun, moon and other stars who have influence on what happens on earth. This is the beginning of the constellation. The influence of metal so that the stars involved Sunday affect gold and silver days influence, and the stars controls the remaining metal. This connection between stars and the metal is the biggest contribution from the Babylonians to Alchemy or Art.

The principle of the back of two have been inherited from the Babylonians by the Greek philosophers who think about the nature of the problem and the theory based on the concept of the Babylonians.

Aristoteles is one of the two Greek philosophers from the beginning of the benefit that those who believe in him and the existence of the four principal property consists of two back: hot and cold, wet and dry, If we combine a pair of back we get the four main elements; fire (from hot and dry); earth (from the dry and cold); water (from the cold and wet) and air (from the hot and wet). This theory of Aristoteles in use until mid-century and exerted a great influence on the possibility of transmuting one element into another.

Alchemy and Chemistry before Islam
Most historians believe that the scientific knowledge Alchemy and Chemistry and have been developed in principle in the Nile Valley, and is also in Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia.

Stapleton has developed the original idea must Alchemy to Syria (especially books), Mesopotamia and Persia, of Egypt, and he suggested that Syria from the Persian invasion was run and techniques to their ideology and Egypt have practiced Alchemy using the Greek language, and Egypt, this is how Alchemy has been derived according to him. [3]

Alchemy became prominent in the science of Alexandria in the early years of the Christian era. If the language culture in Egypt and Greece is the most alchemical treatises translated into Arabic comes from the Greek, but he and the Egyptian Alchemy akan misleading to describe the other.

Most of the population Alexandria and other cities in Egypt is Egyptian, with the small communities of Syria and Greece. Egyptian skills in the metal industry, glass and die making has been combined with Syria, Babylonians and Greek philosophical contemplations in formulating science Alchemy. This is very meaningful to know that for the most important Greek alchemical treatises found in Egypt and that of Zosimus is Akhmim in the original part of Egypt. [4]

During the first century CE in Egypt there are several groups of Gnostic philosophy and spiritualism merosok to the hermetic and belief in the power of magic and hidden.

We find any posts in the beginning of the Arab alchemists Quotations many associated with the pre-Islamic and Arabic there are several alchemical treatises associated with them. This paper is a materials research by historians of science concluded that this is largely thanks to author, false work.

False including this author Hermes, Iflatun (Plato), Aristo (Aristoteles), Phythagoras, Agathodaimon, Ostanes, Hiraql (Heraklius, Maharaja Byzantine 610-41), Cleopatra, Mary, Zosimos, Isis, Krates, Markos, Jamasp, and many Furfuriyus others. They came from Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece and Asia Minor.

Sezgin provide a list of Arabic treatises associated with each author is false. Perhaps this is the work was written before Islam and translated into Arabic from Greek or Syria. Stapleton, [5] Sezgin, and this is opinion. Other historians think that this paper has been written by the author after the false Arab Islam. And if this pseudo-alchemical work is pre-Islamic or Islamic, they are the main source for Arabic Alchemy.

Most of the Greek and Syrian documents from original paper is lost, and very few fragments have survived. Of these fragments are associated with the Greek text Hellenized Egyptian alchemist truant from Mende. (Now called Tall al-Mende Rab'a Delta in Egypt). Treatise called Moon et Physica ( "Natural Mistik and Hal"), the type of book for dyeing and color but in principle the making of gold and silver.

Alchemical texts, most of the recipes, written on papyrus and back to 300 BC found in a cemetery at Luxor in Egypt Hulu [6]. This leaf is distributed between Stockholm and Leiden.

However, the most important alchemical still have text associated with the Egyptian alchemist Zosimus, a native of Egypt on the Ikhmim that may live between 350 and 420 CE Zosimus has completed work before him, and he mentions some of the false name of the author as Hermes, Ostanes and Maria.

Because the scarcity of Greek text and many of the Arabs, the main source to study pre-Islamic Arabic Alchemy is the source. And again, since most historians of science with the West not to Arabic, the serious study of the pre-Islamic Alchemy is still lacking.

Associated with the work of Hermes is one important source for Arabic Alchemy, and the name becomes a link to get there. His fame reached Latin West after the translation from Arabic to work owing to him. He is called in Arabic "al-Hermes Muthallath bi al-Hikma", which means Hermes the three times endowed with Filsafat. Hikma or here shows that the philosophy of the Arts of Alchemy. Arabic name comes from Latin Trismegistus

Important text of Hermes is associated with Tabula Smaragdina. This is a very short text of some of the expressions given by Apollonius of If at the end of the book to create a Secret translated from Arabic in the twelfth century. Jabir bin Hayyan also provide this text in one or more of his works. Text of the Tabula Smaragdina busy installing in the alchemical literature of the Latin West.

About Hermes Trismegistus (from Triple Wisdom) Arabic sources say that Hermes is the first of the Prophet Idris (Enok Bible) that precede and build a flood Piramida Egypt. Hermes is the second of Babylon, and he lived in Mesopotamia after the Flood, and he has given life to science. Hermes third live in Egypt after the flood, and he developed some knowledge and craft. Third time's Hermes is a combination of Alchemy, astronomy, astrology, philosophy and science rest. [7]

Balinas, or Apollonius of ika [8] to help spread the Alchemy of Hermes in his book Sirr al-Khaliqa (Confidential to create).

Most historians of science and chemistry, Alchemy believes that India and China does not attempt any significant development on the Alchemy and Chemistry in the western half of the ancient world. They believe that Alchemy and Chemistry, like other sciences, began in ancient Babylonia and Egypt, and they continue their development in the history of the western half of the world from ancient to modern science increased. [9]



After Arabic Alchemy and Khalid bin Yazid
Khalid bin Yazid is the first to work in Arabic Alchemy or 'Ilm al work (in the Arts). Right-His birthday is not known accurately, but we know that when his brother Yazid Ibn Mu'awiya died in 64/683, Khalid could not afford to become a young age he calif.

Year of death is estimated by some historians to be 84/703 or 90/708. But Stapleton is determined his death in the year of 102/720 based on several Arabic Manuscripts.

According to Ibn al-Nadim, Khalid SUMMONED a number of scholars from Egypt, Greece [10] who is experienced in both Arabic and they were commissioned to translate the work in the Art of Alchemy to Arabic. [11]

Khalid Art of Alchemy is studied under Maryanus the teaching, that one of Egypt or Syria, and took from the Melkite Church is faithful to the Byzantine Emperor. Maryanus is in turn a disciple of Istfan (Stephanus) of Alexandria. [12]

A treatise Liber de compositione alchimiae Arabic original is known that recently, "رسالة مريانس الراهب الحكيم للامير خالد بن يزيد", which provides a description of the find and Maryanus between Khalid and dialogue that took place between them. [13]

Arabic sources that Khalid in the near future be reported to the interest in Alchemy. Thus, Jabir bin Hayyan reported in Kitab al-Khalid monks how SUMMONED Maryanus.

Al-Jahiz (c.776 - 868) was reported in the al-Bayan wa al-tabyin that Khalid Ibn Yazid is the orator, a poet, and eloquent, comprehensive, and sound decision-making is very polite. He is the first (in Islam) who ordered the translation works on astronomy, Alchemy and medicine.

Khalid is a high standing among alchemists Arabic, Arabic, and most work on Alchemy gives citations from the writings and poems on 'Ilm al san'a (the Arts).

Khalid is also the same high standing in Latin Alchemy. Dreaming raised perihatin Khalid's work on Alchemy. But Sezgin refuted Ruska assumptions based on original Arabic sources.

Present new invention by the author of the Arabic original of Liber de compositione alchimiae has decisively that Ruska's speculation that without a basis. [14] Our findings have been discussed in a separate article.

Arabic Alchemists after Khalid
After Khalid, better translation of the alchemical work to appear in Arabic, Arabic and many alchemists appear. We will only mention the most illustrious in accordance with the chronology of their appearance.

Ja'far al-Sadiq

He is Abu 'Abd Allah al-Sadiq Ja'far Ibn Muhammad Ibn' Ali Zayn al-'Abidin, (d. 148/765). He is the sixth Shi'i Imam, and is a coach from Jabir bin Hayyan. Jabir he referred to in many works. There are several alchemical treatises given to him. It is not certain whether Ja'far had written them or they are collected or edited by students, [15] but, even so, they are an important part of Arabic alchemical literature.

Jabir bin Hayyan
He is the alchemist Arabic, and the most celebrated, East and West, until the modern chemicals increased. He is Abu Musa Jabir bin Hayyan al-Sufi, also called al-Azdi, al-Kufi, al-Tusi. He was born around 103 / 721 in the TUS, Khurasan, when his father has been in there, and died in 200/815 in Kufah.

Jabir is from the Arab tribes Azd, and Kufah is the principal residence. He is known as al-Sufi because he took one of the Sufi order.

After the death of his father, Jabir has been sent to the Arabic in which he became a disciple of al-Harbi's Himyari, according to Jabir what has been mentioned in some of his work. He studied the Koran, mathematics and other sciences, in addition to Himyaric language. Jabir also said that he studied under the Alchemy monk (monks), who is a student of Maryanus, a tutor in the Khalid Ibn Yazid.

We do not know much about the early life of Jabir, but we know that he is the alchemist in the court of Caliph Harun al-Rasyid. He is a familiar friend and disciple of Ja'far al-Sadiq the sixth Imam shi'ite. We find some of Jabir's expression of love and respect so as to Ja'far in which he always refers to him as sayyidi "my master".

Jabir has a close relationship with Barmakids, the minister of Abbaside khilafah. Ja'far al-Barmaki, ministers, Jabir was introduced to the Caliph Harun al-Rasyid, to Jabir comprising a treatise on Alchemy. After the catastrophe of Barmakids in 187/803 Jabir live in exile in Kufah until he died. It was reported that a copy of the Book of al-Rahma found under the pillow when he died.

John Erick Holmyard, the historian of chemistry, is credited with researching the history of identity Jabir, in elucidating and high standing in the show's contribution to develop Alchemy to experiment in science. Holmyard realize the importance of Jabir in the history of chemistry is the same as that Boyle and Lavoisier. [16]

Ibn al-Nadim in Fihrist paper provides a list of Jabir. He relies on two of the three catalogs prepared by Jabir himself to his works. One of the catalogs listed this all works of Jabir, while others only give his work on Alchemy. Ibn al-Nadim says that he was selected from two catalogs of books which he never actually saw him or who claim to be trusted by scientists.

Jabir related to the number of books is great. Paul Kraus provide details of their bank accounts that he can work to investigate whether there is or not. Later, Sezgin's Kraus added to the list a number of new titles found.

The honor of Jabir is because of his works on Alchemy, but he also wrote in the chemical industry, medicine, physics, mathematics, philosophy and all branches of knowledge known at the time.

Historian of chemistry, has been researching the paper associated with Jabir, and believe that Jabir had written a large number of them, while the rest are written by other people and blessing to him. Jabirian entire corpus was built between the second / eighth and fourth / tenth century. [17]

It seems that the most important work in the corpus is as follows:

1 - A Collection of One hundred and Twelve Books. There are still books from this collection, but most titles are still missing.

2 - The Seventy Books, or Book of Seventy. [18] Some of the books or articles have been translated into Latin, and they are known as Septuaginta. [19] Arabic speaker who has been missing for up to two decades of the twentieth century.

3-Book Collection of the balance. This is the 144 treatises and some of them are still there.

4 - Data Collection Book correction. This is ten treatises in which Jabir was criticized and corrected the works of writers ancient and contemporary works of some of which include his own. Only one treatise has survived (Musahhahat Iflatun), and we know about some other people through citations by different authors.

5 - The Great Book Properties (Khawass al-Kitab al-Kabir).

This list does not represent all the important work Jabir. Most of the work that still have not learned and is still in manuscript form, and most are still missing and some titles can be found.

There are at least seven Latin treatises that carry the name of Geber (Jabir's Latin name) to the original Arabic has not been identified. This gives some western historians of Alchemy and chemistry in the opportunity for them to return false Latin authors. We have discussed this question in a separate article on this site

Dhu al-Nun
Dhu al-Nun, Abu al-Fayd Thuban Ibn Ibrahim al-Misri (d. 246/861) was a Sufi mystic from Egypt, and is a leader and self-Tapa. He is one of the early mysticism and he influenced its development, and has also been involved in drugs, Alchemy and magic. As mystical alchemist, he was much quoted by Ibn Umayl and some alchemists later. Ibn al-Nadim listed some of his work. Stapleton that he found eight alchemical treatises.

Abu Bakr al-Razi
Al-Razi is the largest after the Arab alchemist Jabir. He was also one of the largest physician in Islam and is a talented philosopher. He is known as Rhases as in Latin and Jabir (Geber), he influenced the development of Latin Alchemy. His influence on the development of Latin medicine is huge.

Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariyya al-Razi was born in Rayy in Iran on 251/865 and died in 313 / 925. He received a education in Rayy, and at another time he directed our attention to medicine and excelled in it.

In previous years, before a drug, he was devoting attention to our Alchemy, is prominent in it and write some important work. Al-Razi this famous recipe with a short practical and a brief description of the materials and apparatus. Writings experimental nature and is regarded as one of the important steps in the direction of modern chemistry.

There are thirteen known treatises in Arabic Alchemy to al-Razi, most of which are still alive, and nine treatises in Latin. Arabic treatises is the famous Book of al-asrar, sirr Kitab al-asrar [20] and al-Kitab al madkhal-ta'limi. [21] One of the missing treatises is the Book ithbat al-san'a wa al-radd 'ala man ankaraha (A book on the Arts and refutation of those who doubt).

Ibn Wahshiyya
Wahshiyya is Ibn Abu Bakr Ahmad bin 'Ali bin Qays bin Wahshiyya. He lived in the third / ninth century, and is active in Alchemy, astrology and agriculture, among others.

The most important of his works which no doubt is K. al-filaha al-nabatiyya in agriculture as in Mesopotamia before Islam. About eight treatises on Alchemy was given to him, the most prominent of which are Kitab al-usul al-mighty of god, also known as the Usul al-hikma.

Ibn Umayl
Ibn Umayl is one of the foremost moral, philosophical and spiritual alchemists. His interest in the analysis of the psychology of Carl Jung. [22]

Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Umayl al-Tamimi living in Egypt in the mid of the fourth / tenth century. One is the Latin name of Senior Zadith filius Hamuel. According to him, some poems and treatises on Alchemy. The most important of the poems is Risalat al-Shams al-ila moorditjyorga (Message from the crescent to the sun), [23] which has been translated into Latin with the title Epistola ad lunam Solis. This rhythm has been described by the author in the treatise Kitab al-ma 'al waraqi wa-al-al-najmiyya ARD. (The Air silver stars and Earth), which is known in Latin as Tabula Chemica.

Maslama Abu al-Majriti
Maslama Abu Muhammad Ibn Ibrahim Ibn 'Abd al-Da'im al-Majriti is from Majrit (Madrid) in al-Andalus. He lives in mid-year fifth / eleventh century. He is not the same person as Abu al-Qasim Maslama Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti who died in 398/1008. Confusion arose because of the similarity in their names.

Abu Maslama wrote several works on Alchemy and magic. His most important work is in the Alchemy Book rutbat al-hakim al-madkhal and ta'lim this work provide accurate information about pentahiran of gold and silver, and explains some chemical operations accurately. [24]

The second important book is Maslama Abu al-Ghayat judge, (The purpose of SAGE), which works on magic. This is one of the most important book ever written on the Astrological magic. It was translated into Spanish and then in Latin. Latin essay Picatrix include the title and is in a unique place in Latin literature Magic.

Al-Tughra'i
He is Mu'ayyid Ismail al-Din Abu al-Husain bin 'Ali al-Tughra'i. He was a great poet and alchemist complete. He entered the service of Saljuqids at the time of Malik Shah and secretary to enter into under the authority of the son, Muhammad I. He is the second most senior officer in perkhidmatan commoner from Saljuqid kingdom. During a struggle for power between the king Saljuqid he was held in 516/1122 unjust according to historians.

As the alchemist, al-Tughra'I was a productive author. One of the most interesting work akan Book Haqa'iq al-istishhad, Ibn Sina's response to protest from Alchemy. Another important work is Kitab mafatih al-Rahma.

Al-Jildaki held a great appreciation for the al-Tughra'i and he is considered to be the only alchemist Jabir. He always referred to him as a Martyr.

Ibn Arfa 'Ra's
He is Abu al-Hasan 'Ali bin Musa al-Andalusi al-Jayyani, better known as Ibn Arfa' Ra's. He lived in fas and there died in 593/1197. He am alchemist metaphor as Khalid Ibn Yazid. Umayl and Ibn al-Tughra'i, and become famous because he was fluent alchemical poem, shudhur al-dhahab (Nuggets of gold), which consists of 1460 verses in rajaz form letter that includes all the letters. Ibn Arfa 'Ra's writing an essay in which he explains to the rhythm. Also wrote treatises included in the explanation of al-Jildaki.

Abu al-Qasim al-'Iraqi
Abu al-Qasim Muhammad Ibn al-Ahmad al'Iraqi-Simawi stay in Iraq in the middle of the seventh / tenth century to thirteen. One of the most important is Al-Kitab al'ilm-muktasab fi zira'at al dhahab (Book of Knowledge to get the Cultivation Gold), which have been edited, translated and published by Holmyard.

Al-Jildaki
'Izz al-Din Ibn Aydamir' Ali al-Jildaki both have lived in Cairo and Damascus, and died in Cairo in 743 / 1342. He is considered one of the prominent Arab alchemists. His importance, however, because he is most knowledgeable volume description and comment on the work of the alchemists who didahului him as Jabir, Ibn Umayl, Ibn Arfa 'Ra's al-Tughra'I, Dhu al-Nun, Abu al-Qasim al-' Iraqi and others. He cited the work of the predecessors of both pre-Islamic and Arabic. It is perfectly possible to write a complete history of Arabic Alchemy only by his learning.

Al-Jildaki said that he had spent seven years studying the work on all of Alchemy before embarking on writing the book, and during this period he visited several Islamic countries and met the most prominent alchemists have.

Al-Jildaki our work is very important to give some information about the Arabic alchemical work of the previous original documents are missing.

According to him, not less than twenty-five a few books on some of productive tomes: Book nihayat al talab, which is one of the most important work, has been studying in a Ph.D. thesis. [25] But most people who have not made the investigation.

Later Alchemists
Alchemy continued interest in Islam in the land until a century later. Limited space does not allow us to account for later activities. One of the most important after the alchemists of al-Jildaki is' Ali al-Izniqi back (from Izniq in Anatolia), which is known as' Ali al-Chelebi or Mu'allif al Jadid (New Author). He lived in the ninth / tenth century to fifteen and left the important work can be quite useful in the study Arabic Alchemy.

One of the alchemists and left serious work is also a leader Hasan Agha. He's the Top Jirja in Egypt, and lived in the eleventh / seventeenth century.

Debate about the validity of the Arts
The debate about the validity of al-San'a (the Arts) and the possibility of changes from base metal into gold, which began in early Arabic Alchemy. Among the great Islamic scientists and philosophers who reject the possibility that changes in al-Kindi, Ibn Isaac, Hunayn, al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, Ibn Khaldun, and a few others. It seems that the debate has been acute at the time before and Jabir bin Hayyan. Jabir is required to write a treatise in defense of the Arts with the title: Al-Burhan ithbāt wa al-ṣan'a (The Proof and Verification of Arts). Al-Kindi wrote a treatise on the art with the title: Ibtal da'wa al mudda'in san'at al-dhahab wa al-fidda min ghayr ma'adiniha (refutation of claims of those who say that gold and silver can be made from than their mineral). Al-Jildaki provide bank account details nihayat this debate in the al-talab.

Arabic Alchemy Theory
Most people see as false Alchemy Art of transmuting base metals, such as tin and lead, into gold and silver. Shallow can see this with the concept of proportionate several modern historians of science and chemistry, which asserts that Alchemy was not something different from the chemical and that it is essentially chemical Middle of the Century. [26]

According to alchemical theory, all forms of matter is one in origin; and transmutable. This bears close resemblance to the modern physical science. Indeed, modern science has shown the possibility raises many transmutations elements. Nuclear experiment has successfully led the transmuted to gold, although the large cost.

The sulfur-temperature theory is based on the Alchemy of Jabir is based. Basically, this theory appears as a product derived from the Greek theory that consists of four elements of earth, air, fire, and water.

Balinas, after he and Jabir, who believe, under the influence of the stars, the metal in the earth was formed by union of sulfur (which will provide hot and dry nature) and mercury (to provide cold and wet). This theory, adopted by Jabir and generalized, and that appears to have been Balinas not known before this, generally regarded as one of the main Jabir donations to alchemical thought.

The reason for the existence of various types of metal and sulfur is that the temperature does not always pure, and that they are not always united in the same proportion. If they are very pure, and if they also incorporate the most complete in the balance of nature, the product of the most perfect metal, namely gold. Defects in the purity and, especially, the proportion of the results in the formation of silver, lead, tin, iron, or copper, but lower since the metal is basically comprised of the same constituents as gold, a combination of injuries that may be corrected with appropriate treatment. Treatment is, according to Jabir, must be made to the way elixirs.

Konsep ini bahwa logam terdiri dari air raksa dan belerang secara umum telah diterima oleh generasi kemudian dari alchemists dan apotek dan tetap merupakan bagian dari Alchemy kimia dan bahkan ke dalam abad kedelapan belas. Konsep tentang kehadiran-prinsip yang mudah-belerang dalam logam dan memang hampir di semua badan adalah leluhur dari konsep phlogiston.

Belerang yang suhu-teori yang berkaitan dengan dua darat exhalations konsep Aristoteles. Salah satu vapours ini diberikan menurut bumi di bawah pengaruh matahari, dan telah berkobar panas, kering dan gas, yang lain basah, dingin dan aqueous. Mantan ide yang dihasilkan dari komponen belerang, yang kedua yang derajat. Kedua exhalations konsep dan hubungannya dengan belerang - derajat teori dituangkan dalam beberapa Bahasa Arab treatises seperti Balinas, Jabir (termasuk bekerja Summa Perfectionis Latin), Ikhwan al-Safa, Ibnu Sina, al-Tughra'i, al Dan lain-Jildaki.

Adalah menarik untuk memberikan satu teks Alquran outlining teori Alchemy. Lampiran B adalah teks yang diedit berdasarkan Holmyard terjemahan dari al-'Iraqi's Kitab al-'ilm al-muktasab fi zira'at al dhahab (Kitab Pengetahuan Mendapatkannya Menyangkut Budidaya Emas).





Lampiran A

Bahan, Peralatan dan Proses

Alchemy dalam bahasa Arab dan Kimia

Account berikut diambil terutama dari kertas Stapleton dkk. pada kimia di Irak di abad kesepuluh [27] yang didasarkan terutama pada al-Razi's Kitab al-asrar. Kami juga dimanfaatkan Karshuni naskah. [28] informasi yang sama terjadi di Arab alchemical treatises lain, tetapi kedua sumber ini merangkum pengetahuan dalam bentuk yang nyaman.

Substances (Aqaqir) yang diklasifikasikan menjadi: (a) sederhana, (b) Sayuran; dan (c) Hewan.

Bersahaja Substances
Bersahaja zat dibagi menjadi:

i- Spirits; ii- Bodies; iii- Stones; iv- Vitriols; v- Boraces ; and vi- Salts.

1- Four Spirits, viz. Mercury, Sal ammoniac; Arsenic; and Sulphur.

2- Seven fusible Bodies or Metals, viz.: Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, Tin, Lead and Kharsini.3. Later Arab alchemists removed Kharsini from the list as we have seen in al-’Iraqi’s account, and some had replaced it with mercury.

3- Thirteen Stones, viz. : Marqashisha; Maghnisiya ; Daws (one of the constituents of iron and steel) ; Tutiya ; Lazaward ; Dahnaj (Green Malachite); Fairuzaj (Turquoise); Shadanj (Haematite); Shakk (Arsenic Oxide); Kuhl (Lead Sulphide); Talq (Mica and Asbestos); Gypsum; and Glass.

4- Six Vitriols (Zajat), viz.: Black vitriol; Alum; Qalqand ; Qalqadis ; Qalqatar ; and Suri.

5- Seven Boraces [29]: Bread Borax; Natrun ; Goldsmith’s Borax which is white and is similar to al-shiha ; al-Shiha which is found at the feet of walls (potassium nitrate); Tinkar; Zarawandi ; and Buraq al-Gharb.

Al-Shiha which is found at the feet of walls was translated by Duval (in Berthelot vol. II), as saltpetre,

6- Thirteen Salts : Sweet ; Bitter ; Andarani ; Tabarzad ; Natrun; Naphthic ; Indian : Salt of Egg; Salt of al-Qali ; Salt of Urine; Salt of Lime (slaked lime) ; and Salt of Oak Ashes; Natrun which is the nitra salt (potassium nitrate) also called Milh al- Hayt (Salt of Wall). [30]

It is obvious that the two kinds of natrun denote here two different kinds of salts, in one of which, the word nitra salt denotes potassium nitrate according to Duval, (Berthelot volume II), who translated it as sel de nitre.


Vegetable Substances
Al-Razi notes in Kitab al-Asrar that these are seldom used, with the exception of the ashes of the Ushnan plant, which was found in arid places and from which al-Qali and salt al-Qili were produced.

Animal Substances
These numbered ten, and included : Hair, Skulls, Brains, Bile, Blood, Milk, Urine, Eggs, Mother of Pearl, and Horn : the best—as a means of preparing the valuable reagent Sal-ammoniac—being, in order, Hair, Brains, Bile, Eggs, Skulls and Blood.

Derivative, or Artificial Substances
Information about derivative materials are to be found in various treatises of al-Razi, Mafatih al-‘Ulum, the Kashuni MS and other Arabic treatises.

The following is a partial list:—

(1) Martak or Murdasanj. Lead Oxide, PbO.

(2) Usrunj or isrinj . Red Lead, Pb3O4.

(3) Isfidaj. Tin or Lead Oxide.

(4) Zaniar. Copper Acetate.

(5) Rusukhtaj. Pro­bably Copper Oxide, CuO.

(6) Tutiya. As this Artificial form is defined as ‘the Smoke of Copper and of Kuhl’ (Lead Sulphide), it should be either Copper Oxide or Lead Oxide. it may have also included Zinc, Bismuth, and Antimony Oxides.

(7) Za‘fran al-Hadid. This can refer to iron rust, iron acetate or to any red combustion product of iron or its compounds.

(8) Daws. A constituent of steel, called by al-Razi ‘ Water of Iron’ and described also by al-Biruni,

(9) Zunjufr (Cinnabar, HgS).

(10) Shakk. Probably the white Arsenic Oxide, As2O3, or lead oxide.

(11) Qalimiya (otherwise, Qalmiya or Iqlimiya) is defined as anything that separates from metals while they are being purified.

(12) Salt of Al-Qili and Lime (Caustic Soda).



Instruments and Apparatus for Melting Bodies
(I) Blacksmith’s Hearth (Kur):

(2) Bellows (Minfakh, or Ziqq):

(3) Crucible (Butaqah):

(4) Descensory (But-bar-but, literally ‘crucible on a crucible,’ the upper one having its bottom perforated with holes)1:

(5) Ladle (Pers. Mashu ; Ar. Mighrafah or Mil’aqah).

(6) Tongs ( Ar. Masik : or Kalbatan—the last named being large blacksmith’s pincers) :

(7) Shears (Muqatti’ : or Miqta’ : pl. Maqati’):

(8) Hammer, or Pestle (Mukassir).

(9) File (Mibrad): and

(10) Semi-cylindrical Iron Mould (Rat : or Misbakah).



Instruments and Apparatus Used in Alchemical Processes
(1) The Cucurbit (Qar’): and Alembic (Ambiq) with a delivery tube. Several kinds of Ambiq are known.

(2) Receiving flask (Qabilah).

(3) Cucurbit, and ‘Blind Alembic’ (i.e., an ambiq without any delivery tube).

(4) Aludel (Uthal).

(5) Beakers (Ar. Aqdah: sing. Qadah: Pers. Jam: arabised pl. jamat). A similar, though perhaps larger, vessel was called the Batiyah.

(5a) Glass cups (Kizan : sing. Kuz).1

(6) Bottles or Flasks (Qannani: sing. Qinninah).

(7) Phials (QawArtir : sing. Qarurah).

(7a) Rose-water phials (Ma’wardiyah).

(8) Earthenware Jars (Barani: sing. Barniyah) with lids, in which substances were heated.

(9) Cauldron (Mirjal: or Tinjtir), in which substances were dissolved.

(10) Earthenware Pots (Qudur), glazed inside, for the Long Uthal used in volatilising Tin ; with corresponding covers (mikabbat).

(11) Bain-marie, or sand-bath (apparently these had no special names beyond that of earthen Pot—Qidr).

(12) Tannur or large Baker’s oven.

(13) Mustauqad, or Mauqid, a small cylindrical stove, used for heating the Aludel.

(14) Atun, a small model of the potter’s or lime-maker’s kiln.

(15) Tabashdan, or Kanun: brasier or chafing dish, similar to that used by food-hawkers, the glowing charcoal being contained in a tray on top of an oven.

(16) Nafikhu nafsih—a stove with perforated sides, half-filled with charcoal, and mounted on 3 legs—in which the receptacle containing the substances to be calcined, or brought into combination, was placed.

(17) Mortar (Pers. hawan: Ar. mihras): and its Pestle (nisab). , The mortar was sometimes made of glass.

(18) (a) Sallayah (flat stone Mortar) : and (b) Fihr (stone Roller, for use with the Sallayah).

(19) Durj, or Clay box in which layers of substances to be calcined or treated were placed. After the box had been closed by a luted cover, fire was kindled over it to heat the contents.

(20) Round Mould (Kurah), in which filings, mixed with suitable reagents, were placed in order to subject the mixture to the action of fire.

(21) A covered Iron pan (miqlat : usual meaning frying pan ‘) used for calcining hair in the preparation of Sal-ammoniac.

(22) Hair Cloth, in which substances were tied and left in a moist warm atmosphere, so that the substances slowly deliquesced and were removed in the form of a strong solution.

(23) Glass Funnel (Qim‘) in which the drippings from the hair cloth were caught. The funnel was inserted in the mouth of a glass bottle.

(24) Sieve (Minkhal), of Hair or Silk.

(24a) Filter (Rawuq), of Linen cloth (Khaish).

(24b) Filter made of a cup (kuz) with perforated bottom, the holes being covered with a layer of pieces of hair or fibre.

(25) Dish, or Platter (Sukurrujah).

(26) Basket (Sallah): or felt-covered Cage (Qafas) used in the process of ‘Inhumation’ under Dung.

(27) Lamps (Qanadil: sing. Qindil), to impart a gentle heat.

Processes followed in Alchemical and Chemical Practice
Al-Razi’s entire scheme of work did not differ from that of Jabir and other Arab alchemists and it is summarized as follows:

(I) Cleansing and Purification of the substances to be employed by means of (a) Distillation, Decantation or Filtration (Taqtir): (b) The use of the Descensory (Istinzal): (c) Assation (or Roasting - Tashwiyah) ; (d) Coction (or Digestion—Tabkh) ; (e) Amalgamation ; (f) Lavation ; (g) Sublimation ; and (h) Calcination ; the last-named being used only in the case of Metals and Stones.’ Calcination included Rusting ; and another process—allied apparently to both Calcination and Lavation—was Taswil (a word which may be translated by Lixiviation).

(2) Having freed the crude materials from their impurities, the next step was to reduce them to an easily fusible condition. This was done by a process known as Ceration (Tashmi’, which resulted in a product which readily melted, without any evolution of fumes, when dropped on a heated metal plate.

(3) The next step was to bring the Cerated products to a further state of disinte­gration by the process of Solution (Hall ).

(4) Solutions of different substances, suitably chosen in proportion to the amount of Body,” Soul ‘ and ‘Spirit ‘ they were supposed to possess, were brought together by the process of Combination (Tamzij). Sometimes, however, admixture of solutions was replaced by Trituration with various liquids, followed by either Assation or Ceration : but al-Razi expressly mentions .that combination of Solutions is the best.

(5) Finally the combined Solutions underwent the process of Coagulation (‘Aqd), the product which resulted 1 being the Elixir. This was a substance of which a small quantity, when projected (tarh) on a larger quantity of baser metal, was believed to be capable of converting it (by a process analogous to Fermentation) into silver, or if silver was used, of converting it into gold.[31]

Appendix B

The Theory of Alchemy According to al-Iraqi

I - Metallic Minerals Are One Species

KNOW, may GOD have mercy on thee that the materials used in the Art of Chemistry are of one species essentially. They are called the metallic minerals and subdivided into six sorts varying in form and in properties, but not immutable as are individual animals and plants.

They are gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin. Each of them is marked off from the others by accidental distinguishing pro­perties, and it should be possible to effect the necessary removal of these properties the specific nature remaining constant.

We say and maintain that two species of natural things which differ radically and essentially cannot be changed and converted one into the other by the Art as, for example, man and the horse. But these six bodies can be mutually converted.

It is possible (for example) for a part of the lead to be changed into silver. In the same way silver may be converted into gold. But if silver differed from gold in species it would not be possible to convert it into it, just as it is impossible to convert a horse into the human species by the Art, because they differ radically and essentially.

These six metallic forms are all of one species, distinguished from one another only by differentiating accidental qualities; their extreme limit is reached when they become gold. Now that which is free from any accidental quality is gold, while what possesses these becomes either silver or the two leads if it has the quality of coldness, or copper or iron if it has the quality of hotness. And these six forms of a single species are similar merely to health and fever in man. When the fever is trea­ted so that it departs and the man returns to freedom from disease, he regains the most perfect state of health.

II - Removing the Accidental Qualities
Know, may GOD, the Most Exalted, have mercy on thee that we began by saying that these six forms are all gold by species, and gold is their limit. Now that which is composed in the right pro­portion quantitatively, and in agreement therewith, in the right proportion qualitatively, and whose nature has reached its highest point, has become gold; while that in which the qualitative (composition) is varied comes forth from the ore in the state of im­perfection.

But the quantitative (composition) of these six individuals does not vary; for this composition in them depends upon moistness and dryness, whereas the qualitative composition depends upon hotness and coldness.

Now the moistness and dryness of which minerals are composed are nothing but watery steam and earthy smoke; if compounded

together in right proportion, they give rise to these six metallic substances, while if the dryness, that is, the smoke, is in too great proportion, then are formed brittle stones such as the marcasites, magnesia, tutias, and the stones related to the mineral substances from kuhl and zarnikh, etc. If the moistness, that is the steam, is in too great proportion, mercury and nothing else will result. This occurs only in particular districts of the earth in places which are very near to equilibrium, that is, equilibrium of climate.

Hence it has been established that the quantitative composition of these six metallic substances is constant; understand this, there­fore, and know that the cause of the existence of gold is nothing but the equilibrium of the hotness, and that reason why the rest of the six substances fall short of being gold is excess either of hotness or of coldness.

When scientists considered these six ductile mineral substances and found them to be of one species, part imperfect and part perfect, and when they found imperfect ones in the ores of the perfect, they knew that the difference between them was only qual­itative; and they found that the accidental qualities which mark­ed off one from another were only distinguishing unessential qualities which could be removed by means of a proper remedy.

And they said: One of the two following things is necessary — (a) that we remove the accidental properties of these five substances

by the fire; or (b) that we make a compound which if projected upon them will perfect in them that which is imperfect, and remove from them what is in excess of equilibrium or falls short thereof.

Now if we use fire alone, it must be either violent or gentle; and the time of each of these fires must be either long or short.

When silver is placed in a light fire, no success is acquired by a short action, but a long period is necessary — even to years: a thing which human nature makes difficult.

So there is no benefit at all to the silver neither by a long action nor by a short one, for a long action is difficult and life is too short for it, while a short action does not succeed. Moreover, when silver is placed in a violent fire, if the time is shorter than necessary there is no success, while if long, it is certainly tinctured in the fire and is strengthened, but only after removal of the greater part, and so small a part is left that it was not worth transmuting it into gold on account of the loss incurred and the outlay required. Thus there is no advantage in converting silver into gold by fire alone.

[The author gives then the same argument for copper, iron and the two leads]

When this made itself clear to scientists, necessity drove them to make a compound from a single drug, or from drugs either differing in species, or differing in form, but nevertheless included in a single species essentially, though not relatively. And they made two Elixirs, one of them for whiteness and the other for redness, fusible, miscible, soluble, permeating, stable and assimilable. For if there be no fusion there can be no mixing, and if there be no mixing there can be no assimilation, and if there be no assimi­lation there can be no solution, and if there be no solution there can be no permeation, and if there be no permeation there can be no stability in the fire. And if one of these qualities is lacking the com­bination is ruined, and if the combination is ruined then the Art is vain.

It is necessary that one of the Elixirs should be hot and red, in order that it may remove the quality of coldness and may tincture the substance with its colour, red ; and the second cold and white, to remove the quality of hotness and to tincture the substance with its colour, white. In this way, upon whatever of these (metallic) forms it is projected, it dissolves in it with effervescence, and will be an aid to the fire in shortening the operation. It will be such a substance that it removes the accidental qualities, and at the same time preserves the (metallic) form and the equilibrium of its moistness with its dryness.

Now to whatever of these (metallic) forms is cold, is added the hot Elixir, and it heats it and tinctures it red ; while to those which are hot with a heat in excess of equilibrium is added the white Elixir, and it cools them and tinctures them white, and gives equi­librium to their constitution which was disordered.

For that which renders necessary the heating of these (metal­lic) forms in the refining fire is only the qualitative variation; thus there occur among them the soft and the hard and the heavy and the light.

As for silver, the Elixir of Redness when projected upon it fixes it not by its heaviness but by its stability and ready fusibility and by protecting it from the fire. Thus the fire is able to accelerate

the action and completes the maturing of the silver and fixes it and tinctures it, and it becomes gold when the lightness and whiteness have disappeared from it. For the whiteness in silver is the neces­sary consequence of the coldness and small degree of maturing, and when the cause disappears there disappears with it the effect. Understand that, therefore, for it is one of the foundations of this Art, and the Sages one and all were very jealous of it even with their sons, and more so with the rest of men.

As for the two leads, that which prevents them from being silver is only their coldness, which is in excess of that of silver. Their constitution is rendered imperfect by the paucity of their hotness and maturing.

And since it is known that the Elixir of Whiteness is hotter than the two leads, in the same way that the hotness of silver is greater than that of the two leads, then the Elixir of Whiteness may be projected upon the two leads and will increase them in hotness and cohesion until it transforms them into the just proportion of silver and its hotness, which falls short of gold and goes beyond the two leads.

Thus the Elixir of silver is not excessively cold, and the Elixir of gold is not excessively hot.

The two coppers, as far as concerns their relationship to gold and silver, are hotter and drier than the latter. Now things will strengthen their like and weaken their opposite, so that if the Elixir of Redness is projected upon the two coppers, it increases them in heat and dryness, and converts them into powders from which no advantage whatever can be gained. It is therefore neces­sary that the Elixir of silver should first be projected upon them, to moisten them and cool them and convert them into silver: if the Elixir of gold is then projected upon them it will convert them into gold, after their transformation into silver. So understand that and think thereon.

These bodies change at first only into the form of silver, and then into gold ; and this follows uniformity of specific nature, for what is right for any one of all these forms is right for the others, since they are all varieties of the metallic mineral.

When the Elixir is projected upon mercury it coagulates it not to a hard mineral but to an elixir in the form of powder, such that when it is pro­jected upon a mineral form of an imperfect degree it makes it reach perfection of the species.

Understand, therefore, the hidden things of the secrets of this Art, and thou wilt attain to a high degree, if GOD, the Most Exalted, will.

And Know, may GOD the Exalted have mercy upon thee that I intended, in composing this prologue in two sections, only to guide aright him who looketh into this book of mine. For every Art must have given materials upon which it is based, and we found that materials of this Art are these six substances, — nay, five rather, since gold, even if it is of their number, is perfect, and the Art of Chemistry was founded only to raise the remaining substances to its level. I have treated the whole matter thoroughly, in order that the reader may easily enter their town and speak their language and know their Art and copy their royal and philosophical procedure. And from GOD - may He be exalted and magnified — I ask aid and guidance and right direction to the Path, by His grace and munificence. Verily, He is powerful over whatsoever He willeth.
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